Scripture
The Messiah — Parts 1–3
Justin Martyr writing about 150 A.D. and Tertullian, another Christian apologist writing about 200 A.D., both wrote that anyone who took the trouble of looking in the census archives of Augustus would find the Lord's birth recorded there.
Part 1
Evidence He Existed — The Jesus Story and the Siege of Jerusalem
Non-Christian Sources
Tacitus, a Roman writer born 30 years after Jesus's death, wrote:
"Consequently to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt, and inflicted the most exquisite tortures, on a class, hated for their abominations called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, was put to death by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea in the reign of Tiberius: but the pernicious superstition, repressed for a time broke out again, not only through Judea, where the mischief originated, but through the city of Rome also."
Tacitus, Annals XV.44
Lucian of Samosata, a Greek writer of the second century, wrote:
"The man who was crucified in Palestine because He introduced a new cult into the world.... Furthermore, their first lawgiver persuaded them that they were all brothers one of another after they had transgressed once for all by denying the Greek gods and by worshiping that crucified sophist Himself and living under his Laws."
Josh McDowell, A Ready Defense, p.198, The Passing Peregrinus
The controversial and disputed passage of Josephus:
"Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was (the) Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day."
Josephus, Translation by William Whiston, Antiquities, XVIII.33
The Arab version of the Josephus passage:
"At this time there was a wise man who was called Jesus. And His conduct was good, and He was known to be virtuous. And many people from among the Jews and the other nations became his disciples. Pilate condemned Him to be crucified and to die. And those who had become His disciples did not abandon His discipleship. They reported that He had appeared to them three days after his crucifixion and that he was alive; Accordingly, He was perhaps the Messiah concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders."
Josephus, Josh McDowell, A Ready Defense, p.199
Suetonius, a Roman historian and court official under Hadrian, wrote:
"Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from the city."
Suetonius, Translated by Robert Graves, Life of Claudius, 25.4
"Punishments were also inflicted on the Christians, a sect professing a new and mischievous religious belief."
Suetonius, Life of Nero, 16.2
John the Baptist
Since John the Baptist's life was so closely associated with Jesus (they were cousins), the following account from Josephus is included:
"Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that is called the Baptist: For Herod killed him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exorcise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God, and so as to come to baptism;...Now when others came in crowds about him, for they were very greatly moved by hearing his words, Herod, who feared lest the influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion (for they seemed to be ready to do anything he should advise), thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause,...Accordingly, he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod's suspicious temper to Macherus, the fortress I before mentioned, and was there put to death."
Josephus, Translation William Whiston, XVIII, 5, p.595
Matthew 14:1–12 records the account of John's death in detail — how Herod had John arrested on account of Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip, and how the daughter of Herodias danced before Herod at his birthday banquet and requested the head of John the Baptist on a platter. Though Herod was grieved, he commanded it because of his oaths and his dinner guests.
Mark 6:12–24 adds further detail: when Jesus sent the Twelve disciples out and they preached repentance, cast out demons, and healed the sick, King Herod heard of it and said, "John whom I beheaded has risen!" — for Herod himself had sent and had John arrested and bound in prison on account of Herodias.
Josephus was writing about the death of John the Baptist some sixty years after the event. The Gospel writers Matthew and Mark are much closer in time to the events they describe despite the views of many scholars today. The Gospels contain information that possibly came from people in the Herodian court that were linked with the Jesus movement. The account in Josephus gives the outline of events on the death of John and basically agrees with the Gospel writers. Matthew and Mark give details that only someone working in the palace of Herod would know — the exact event that brought about the death of John, and that Herod thought that Jesus was John the Baptist raised from the dead.
R.T. France, The New International Commentary on the New Testament, The Gospel of Matthew, p.555; Luke 8:3 and Acts 13:1.
James the Brother of Jesus
"Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so, he assembled the Sanhedrin of Judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned."
Josephus, Translation by William Whiston, p.656, Book 20.9.1
It is believed that James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death in 62 or 69 A.D. on order of the High Priest Ananus. His death was not recorded in the Bible. James was the half-brother of Jesus and writer of the book of James in the Bible.
On the Reliability of the New Testament
Dr. Robinson of Trinity College and archaeologist Sir William Ramsay were two of the New Testament's most distinguished critics. Dr. Robinson, after studying the New Testament, was forced to conclude all of it was written before 70 A.D. — within the lifetimes of the Apostles. Sir Ramsay thought the book of Acts was written over a hundred years after Jesus' death. However, after thirty years of study he realized he had been wrong. He came to the conclusion: "Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy...this author should be placed along with the very greatest of historians."
In Acts 26, Luke records the Apostle Paul's speech at his trial before King Agrippa. He states that everyone, even the king, had heard about the death and resurrection of Jesus: "For the king knows about these matters, and I speak to him also with confidence, since I am persuaded that none of these things escape his notice; for this thing has not been done in a corner. King Agrippa, do you believe the prophets? I know that you do." And King Agrippa replied to Paul, "In a short time you will persuade me to become a Christian."
Josh McDowell, Evidence That Demands A Verdict, p.63; Josh McDowell, A Ready Defense, Compiled by Bill Wilson, p.108–109.
The Temple of Herod
The destruction of the temple in 70 A.D. was not mentioned in the New Testament, giving evidence most of it was written before that date. The burning of the Hebrew temple by the Romans was such a cataclysmic event in the ancient world that the New Testament writers would not have failed to mention it if it was written after that time. When Jesus gave His famous prophecy that the temple would be destroyed in Matthew 24 — "not one stone would be left upon another" — Matthew would have recorded that "this prophecy was fulfilled," as he did other prophecies in his book, if it was written after 70 A.D. Since he did not do this, the book of Matthew was likely written at an early date when the apostles were still alive.
Jesus' prediction of the temple's destruction was well known to the Jews and plays a significant role in the story of His trial and death. The Herodian temple was an engineering marvel and one of the wonders of the ancient world, and Jesus' prediction of its destruction also proves He was who He said He was.
Two ancient sources, writing independently, spoke of signs in the sky and strange events during the siege of Jerusalem. Tacitus recorded:
"There had been hosts joining battle in the skies, the fiery gleam of arms, the temple illuminated by the sudden radiance from the clouds. The doors of the inner shrine were suddenly thrown open, the voice of more than mortal tone were heard to cry that the Gods were departing. At the same instant there was a mighty stir as of departure. Some few put a fearful meaning on these events..."
Tacitus, Annals and Histories, Book 5.13, p.618
Josephus writes of a star resembling a sword that stood over the whole city, a comet that continued a whole year, and the eastern gate of the inner court of the temple — made of brass and vastly heavy, shut with difficulty by twenty men — being seen to open of its own accord. He also records that priests in the inner court "felt a quaking and heard a great noise, and after that they heard a sound of a great multitude saying, 'Come, let us leave this place.'"
After the Temple records were destroyed in 70 A.D., no future messiah will be able to prove a direct bloodline to King David and fulfill the prophecy in 2 Samuel 7:8–17 and 1 Chronicles 17:11–15.
The New Complete Works of Josephus, Translation by William Whiston, Commentary by Paul L. Maier, The Jewish War, Book 6, Chapter 5.3, p.898–899.
The Genealogies of Jesus Christ
Luke 3:23–38 traces the genealogy of Jesus from Joseph back through David, Abraham, and all the way to Adam, "the son of God." This genealogy is carefully framed to link together the members of Jesus' family line and to root securely His ancestral credentials as God's redemptive agent.
Matthew 1:1–17 opens with "The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham," and traces the royal line from Abraham through David to Joseph, the husband of Mary. Matthew notes that all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations; from David to the deportation to Babylon, fourteen generations; and from the deportation to Babylon to the time of Christ, fourteen generations.
It is unusual for women to be named in genealogies. Matthew names five: Tamar, Rahab, Ruth, Bathsheba (Uriah's wife), and Mary. Each of these women is an object lesson about divine grace. Matthew never calls Joseph the father of Jesus. Through Joseph, Jesus obtains the legal right to rule as king; through Luke's genealogy He gains the bloodline through Mary to David. After the Temple records were destroyed in 70 A.D., no future messiah will be able to prove a direct bloodline to King David and fulfill the prophecy in 2 Samuel 7 and 1 Chronicles 17.
Joel B. Green, The New International Commentary of the New Testament, The Gospel of Luke, p.189–190; John MacArthur, MacArthur Bible Commentary, p.1119 and p.1283; R.T. France, The New International Commentary of the New Testament, The Gospel of Matthew, p.33.
Part 2
Sejanus and the Chronology of Christ's Death
A section of Gary DeLashmutt's paper on the chronology of Christ's death.
Introduction
Lucius Aelius Sejanus' bearing on church history is not immediately apparent to the church historian. He is well known among Roman historians as the man who almost succeeded in overthrowing Tiberius Caesar. However, his relationship with Pontius Pilate has an important influence on what year one dates the death of Jesus. The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of Sejanus' life, to examine his relationship with Pilate, and finally to understand the impact of this information on the date of Jesus' death.
The Peak of Sejanus's Power
Sejanus reached the peak of his power in 29 CE. Tiberius' mother died during this year, yet he refused to come to her funeral in Rome — probably because he had begun to believe Sejanus' charges that Agrippina was actively seeking to assassinate him. Later that same year, Tiberius accused Agrippina and Nero of various crimes; both were exiled, where Nero eventually committed suicide and Agrippina starved herself to death. He also got Tiberius to condemn and imprison Drusus, where he committed suicide. Only Gaius (then seventeen) and Gemellus, a boy of ten, remained alive as heirs from the Julio-Claudian line.
In early 30 AD, Sejanus had Gallus condemned for sedition. When Sejanus got permission from Tiberius to marry Livia Julia, he was in a seemingly very advantageous position. During 30 AD, Sejanus also began to consolidate his power over the Roman armies in foreign lands, replacing commanders with men loyal to him. During the period from 29 to 30 CE, Tiberius made it clear that he regarded Sejanus as his exclusive representative in Rome. The Senate voted that his birthday be honored publicly, and oaths were sworn "by the fortunes of Tiberius and Sejanus." In 30 CE, Tiberius declared his intentions to make himself and Sejanus consuls the following year.
The Fall of Sejanus
Probably in early 31 CE, Tiberius received a letter from his widowed sister-in-law Antonia. She told him that Sejanus was plotting a revolt and detailed many of the ways that he was doing this. From this time forward, Tiberius acted in such a way that makes it clear he knew of Sejanus' treason.
Tiberius began to send a "mixed message" about Sejanus to the Roman senators — continuing to lavish praise upon him while also speaking in a mildly critical way of Sejanus and his allies. He resigned his consulship, forcing Sejanus to do the same, then made Gaius consul, indicating he had chosen Gaius as his successor. He forbade all sacrifices to living humans, stopping public homage to Sejanus.
Satisfied of his security, Tiberius hatched a brilliant plot to depose Sejanus. He made Macro the new commander of the Praetorian Guard and sent him to Rome with a letter to be read before the Senate. The purposefully long, rambling letter ended with a scathing denunciation of Sejanus and demanded his arrest. Stunned, Sejanus was led out. When the senators saw that the common people and the Praetorian Guard rejoiced at Sejanus' arrest, they condemned and executed him the same day — October 18, 31 CE.
After Sejanus's Fall
Tiberius then launched an investigation into the conspiracy. All of Sejanus' family were killed, as was customary. Over the next three to four years, many people were tried — some convicted and executed, some allowed to turn state's evidence, some acquitted. Satisfied that the conspiracy had been sufficiently rooted out, Tiberius dropped the matter around 34 CE.
The Relationship Between Sejanus and Pilate
The available evidence indicates Pilate was appointed to the office of prefect of Judea by Sejanus. Josephus records that Valerius Gratus ruled Judea for approximately eleven years before Pontius Pilate became his successor, and that Pilate ruled approximately ten years before being removed. Tiberius retired to Capri sometime in 26 CE, making it very likely that Pilate was sent after Tiberius retired — and thus appointed by Sejanus.
Sejanus's and Pilate's Anti-Semitic Policies
Josephus details Pilate's hatred and baiting of the Jewish people. Philo claims that Sejanus was anti-semitic and planned to destroy the Jewish race completely. Though Tiberius was probably also anti-semitic, he realized after Sejanus was exposed that many of the charges brought against the Jews were fabricated by Sejanus, so in 32 CE he issued a decree throughout the empire not to mistreat the Jews. Philo writes:
"Therefore everyone everywhere, even if he is not naturally well disposed toward the Jews, was afraid to engage in destroying any of our institutions, and indeed it was the same under Tiberius though matters in Italy became troublesome when Sejanus was organizing his onslaughts. For Tiberius knew the truth, he knew at once after Sejanus' death that the accusations made against the Jewish inhabitants of Rome were false slanders, invented by him because he wished to make away with the nation..."
Philo, Legatio 24, 159–161
Eusebius, almost quoting Philo, clearly makes the same inference — that Pilate was probably sent to Judea by Sejanus and actively pursued Sejanus' policies with the Jews.
Possible Dates of Jesus's Death
Since Jesus died while Pilate was procurator of Judea, He must have died roughly between 26 and 37 CE. Furthermore, the New Testament states that He died on a Passover which fell on a Friday. Astronomical calculations ascertain that this occurred possibly in 27 CE, and almost certainly in 30, 33, and 36 CE. Luke 3:1–2 states that John the Baptist commenced his ministry "in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar," which would be 28/29 CE — canceling out 26 CE. Since no one can make a case for Jesus' public ministry lasting more than four years, this would also cancel out 36 CE.
Pilate's Change of Behavior Toward the Jews
Pilate had a consistent record of hostility toward the Jews — even to the point of baiting them several times. Soon after arriving in Judea, he had ordered Roman standards brought within the city of Jerusalem under the cover of night, knowing it would infuriate the Jewish people. On another occasion, Pilate used money from the Temple treasury to construct an aqueduct, and when the Jews protested, he ordered soldiers to dress like Jews and mingle among the crowd, then beat and kill many of them. Later, possibly in 29/30 CE, Pilate introduced coins engraved with a symbol of Emperor worship.
Yet the gospels present Pilate during the trial as a man fearful of the Jews and eager to please them. He knows Jesus is innocent but gives in to condemning Him in order to please the Jews. Such behavior is simply not tenable before Sejanus' demise. If Jesus' trial was after Tiberius' 32 CE decree against mistreating the Jews, Pilate would be very uneasy about any report getting back to Tiberius — being Sejanus' appointee, he may well have been under suspicion already. Thus, the drastic change in Pilate's behavior toward the Jews in Jesus' trial is very consistent after 32 CE, but very inconsistent before that time.
The Jews' Use of "Amicus Caesaris"
During the trial of Jesus, John records:
"...Pilate made efforts to release Him, but the Jews cried out saying, 'If you release this man, you are no friend of Caesar; everyone who makes himself out to be a king opposes Caesar.' When Pilate therefore heard these words, he brought Jesus out and sat down on the judgment seat... And so, he delivered Him up to them to be crucified." (John 19:12–16)
The term "friend of Caesar" (Latin: amicus Caesaris) is a technical term reserved for senators, knights, and administrators who were meritorious and thus favored by the emperor. To lose this title was to lose one's post and face complete ostracism from Roman life. The Jews were uttering a threat to Pilate — one that makes sense only if Tiberius is back in control of the empire and if Pilate is under imperial censure because of his association with Sejanus. Pilate's response becomes intelligible only after 31 AD, when Sejanus was deposed.
Conclusion
The fact that Sejanus' downfall came in 31 CE has a very significant impact on dating the death of Jesus. Only 30 or 33 CE are tenable years for Jesus' death. Pilate was probably Sejanus' appointee who actively carried out his anti-semitic policies, and thus was in danger after Sejanus was executed. The behavior of Pilate and the Jews during the trial of Jesus makes sense only after Sejanus' demise. Therefore, 33 CE is the preferable date for the death of Jesus.
Author: Gary DeLashmutt. Sources include: Charles Edward Smith, Tiberius and the Roman Empire; Frank Burr Marsh, The Reign of Tiberius; Robin Seager, Tiberius; P.L. Maier, "Sejanus, Pilate and the Date of the Crucifixion," Church History 37 (1968); Josephus, Antiquities; Philo, Legatio; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History; A.N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament.
Part 3
The Intersection of Redemptive and Secular History
R.C. Sproul, taken from The Invisible Hand, Chapter 12.
"Redemptive history takes place within the context of ordinary history; it occurs in real time and space. To be sure however, there is a transcendent and vertical dimension to it. In redemptive history the eternal intersects the temporal; eternity intersects time; the infinite touches the finite. Because the two touch, it is improper to view them in terms of radical discontinuity. The life of Christ begins in the framework of history:
And it came to pass in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered. This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So, all went to be registered, everyone to his own city. Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be registered with Mary, his betrothed wife, who was with child. So it was, that while they were there, the days were completed for her to be delivered. And she brought forth her firstborn Son, and wrapped Him in swaddling cloths, and laid Him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn. (Luke 2:1–7)
Jesus was born during the Pax Romana, the zenith of Roman culture and conquest. Emperor Augustus Caesar had ascended the throne. The Roman Empire had introduced a system of communication designed to facilitate the movement of its armies — a system of roads linking the parts of the empire that was the envy of the world. It is impossible to conceive of the rapid expansion of the Christian church apart from these cultural advantages. The gospel was carried to the known world over Roman roads and via the Roman postal system.
From time to time the Roman government took a census for the chief purpose of taxation. Residents were required to enroll at the place of their birth, a requirement that sometimes necessitated arduous travel. It was during such an enrollment that Jesus was born, fulfilling what the prophet Micah had prophesied centuries earlier as to the geographical site of the future Messiah's birthplace:
"But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, Though you are little among the thousands of Judah, Yet out of you shall come forth to Me The one to be Ruler in Israel, Whose going forth are of old, From everlasting." Therefore, He shall give them up, Until the time that she who is in labor has given birth, Then the remnant of His brethren shall return to the children of Israel. And He shall stand and feed His flock In the strength of the LORD, In the majesty of the name of the LORD His God; And they shall abide, For now He shall be great To the ends of the earth. (Micah 5:2–4)
The tiny village of Bethlehem, the city of David, was selected by God to be the birthplace of the Messiah. But Joseph and his betrothed wife, Mary, lived in Nazareth — a circumstance that had prompted Nathaniel to ask, "Can anything good come out of Nazareth?" The New Testament does not regard the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem as a fortuitous accident of history. Behind the political power of Caesar was the transcendent providence of God. Completely unknown to Augustus himself, his decree was but a tool in the hand of God to ensure that the truth of the Old Testament prophecy be made manifest.
Scripture declares that Jesus was born "in the fullness of time." The word translated "fullness" is the Greek word pleroma — a fullness that is absolute, a fullness that reaches its bursting point. The "fullness of time" means that history was ripe for the birth of Christ. All of the chronos of the past and all the kairoi that had gone before converged in this moment. Jesus was born at the precise second and in the precise place that God had ordained from the foundation of the world.
Luke's reference to Caesar Augustus and to Quirinius, governor of Syria, places the incarnation account squarely in the context of secular history. Providence caused the meeting of primary and secondary causes, secular and redemptive history.
But it was not only Christ's birth that is placed in the record of secular history; His death also took place in the fullness of time. The Apostles' Creed makes no mention of Augustus, but it does make a reference to another historical figure — the Roman official Pontius Pilate. The phrase "suffered under Pontius Pilate" is recited by thousands of people every week. It was Pilate who pronounced the death sentence on Jesus — the Gentile ruler who condemned the Messiah, fulfilling the prophecy that the Messiah would be delivered into the hand of the Gentiles.
Pilate exercised the role of publica persona, but he was more than just a run-of-the-mill public official. He was appointed by God in His providence to pronounce judgment on Christ. The New Testament labors the point that no one was able to take Christ's life from Him; Jesus was actively involved in laying down His life for His sheep. In light of this, Jesus had an interesting interchange with Pilate regarding Pilate's authority:
Then Pilate said to Him, "Are You not speaking to me? Do you not know that I have power to crucify You, and the power to release you?" Jesus answered, "You have no power at all against Me unless it had been given you from above. Therefore, the one who delivered Me to You has the greater sin." (John 19:10–11)
During the interrogation of Jesus by Pilate, their conversation had Pilate uttering words that carried far more meaning than he possibly could have realized:
Then Pilate entered the Praetorium again, called Jesus, and said to Him, "Are You king of the Jews?" Jesus answered him, "Are you speaking for yourself about this, or did others tell you this concerning Me?" Pilate answered, "Am I a Jew? Your own nation and the chief priests have delivered you to me. What have You done?" Jesus answered, "My kingdom is not of this world. If My kingdom were of this world, My servants would fight, so that I should not be delivered to the Jews; but now My kingdom is not from here." Pilate therefore said to Him, "Are You a king then?" Jesus answered, "You say rightly that I am a king. For this cause I was born, and for this cause I have come into the world, that I should bear witness to the truth. Everyone who is of the truth hears My voice." Pilate said to Him, "What is truth?" And when he had said this, he went out again to the Jews, and said to them, "I find no fault in Him at all." (John 18:33–38)
Pilate's declaration to the crowd, "I find no fault in the man," was his official judgment as the publica persona. But it was more than that. He couldn't find any fault in the man because there was no fault to be found in Him. This was the sinless One who stood before Pilate, the Lamb without blemish who was being readied for the slaughter. Pilate made another statement regarding Christ:
So then Pilate took Jesus and scourged Him. And the soldiers twisted a crown of thorns and put it on His head, and they put on Him a purple robe. Then they said, "Hail the King of the Jews!" And they struck Him with their hands. Pilate then went out again, and said to them, "Behold, I am bringing Him out to you, that you may know that I find no fault in Him." Then Jesus came out, wearing the crown of thorns and the purple robe. And Pilate said to them, "Behold the Man!" (John 19:1–5)
The phrase "Behold the Man" in Latin was uttered as ecce homo. Theologians of antiquity saw in this another example of an unintentional double meaning provoked by Providence. When Jesus was put on display before the watching world, He was not presented as God but as "the man." This One was the embodiment of a new humanity, the Second Adam, the Man who perfectly fulfilled the purpose of human creation — to mirror and reflect the character of God by bearing His divine image. As the author of Hebrews declared:
God who at various times and in various ways spoke in times past to the fathers by the prophets, has in these last days spoken to us by His Son, whom He has appointed heir of all things, through whom also He made the worlds; who being the brightness of His glory and the express image of His person, and upholding all things by the word of His power, when He had by Himself purged our sins, sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high. (Hebrews 1:1–3)
Note that Jesus is described as the "brightness" of God's glory and "the express image of His person." This He was, not only in His deity, but also in His humanity. Pilate's call to the world to behold this man is counsel that transcends his intended mockery. In birth, life, and death Jesus carries out the redemptive purpose of God on the plane of human history. It is ironic that all of secular history is measured by reference to Him — the numbers we use carry the initials A.D., the Latin anno Domini, "the year of our Lord." All of history is framed around this Person who came in the fullness of time and whose coming gives definition to all of time."